Land Use and the Natural Environment

Environmental considerations are an integral part and increasingly important element of transportation planning. The need to protect environmental resources as part of the process for improving transportation is clarified in FHWA policy, integrated into project-level planning and has been progressively strengthened in regional transportation planning.

FHWA policy clarifies that environmental considerations are to be integrated into every phase of transportation decision making (1994 Environmental Policy Statement) and that “Metropolitan Transportation Planning should include consideration of the protection of important natural ecosystems and biological resources…” and provide for “incorporation of ecological considerations early in the transportation system planning and development process” (1995 FHWA policy memorandum). FHWA, with assistance by seven other Federal agencies, prepared Eco-Logical: An Ecosystem Approach to Developing Infrastructure Projects to promote and facilitate ecosystem-based planning and mitigation across agency and disciplinary boundaries in order to develop more cost-effective transportation projects with better environmental outcomes.

In 2005, new transportation legislation (SAFETEA-LU) added two new requirements to regional transportation planning for agencies like OKI. One requirement calls for “environmental consultations” to bring state and local agencies involved in conservation and environmental protection more fully into the transportation plan’s development. The other requirement calls for the plan to include “a discussion of potential mitigation of environmental effects,” which involves consulting with federal and state agencies on types of strategies for avoiding, minimizing or compensating for transportation effects.

To ensure that OKI meaningfully engages agencies involved in conservation and environmental protection, state and local experts are convened to consider the projects in this plan. This process has evolved with each plan since 2012 and is refined based on the input received in previous consultations. The process for this round of Environmental Consultations included the following:
• An Environmental Consultations overview with training on how to access and use the online Environmental Resources Viewer Application.
• Survey feedback received from state and local agencies on how to better protect environmental resources from any negative transportation or development impacts.
• A map-based comparison of the proposed transportation plan projects with environmental resources that states have targeted for protection or conservation.

OKI is responsible for developing a Discussion of Environmental Mitigation as part of its regional transportation planning. The discussion considers potential mitigation activities and areas for their application that are regional in scope, and that may have the greatest potential to restore and maintain the environmental functions affected by the regional transportation plan. Part of the Environmental Consultations engagement process focuses on this discussion and is included in the Environmental Impacts chapter of this plan.

Additionally, OKI staff continues to refine environmental prioritization data. This information is used by local conservation partners and local governments as they prioritize where their conservation efforts should be focused. This information can also help identify potential mitigation sites for future transportation and development projects. Ongoing consultation with greenspace experts, including the Green Umbrella Land Prioritization Impact Team, enables OKI tools and data to remain at the forefront of related discussions and planning efforts.

Congress adopted the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) in 1990 to address the country’s major air pollution problems. The CAAA regulates six pollutants: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and ozone. Under provisions of the CAAA, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated nine counties in the Cincinnati area as a nonattainment area for ozone under the 2015 ozone standard. Nonattainment means that the area is not meeting the national ambient air quality standard. Ozone is formed through chemical reactions induced when sunlight reacts with volatile organic compounds, or VOC’s, and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). VOCs and NOx occur from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.

In April 2018, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated portions of nine counties in the Cincinnati area as a nonattainment area for ozone under the 2015 ozone standard. The 2015 Cincinnati ozone nonattainment area is Lawrenceburg Township in Dearborn County, Indiana, portions of the Kentucky counties of Boone, Campbell and Kenton, and the Ohio counties of Butler, Clermont, Clinton, Hamilton and Warren.

Transportation-related sources are a major contributor to the above CAAA-regulated pollutants.
Transportation sources account for nearly one-half of total regional emissions of VOC’s and one-third of NOx emissions. Industry sources account for about another one-third of all VOC and NOx emissions. The remaining “area” sources include individually insignificant sources that, when added together, have a significant impact, such as lawnmowers, oil-based paints, boats and dry cleaners.

Following progress in reducing fine particle pollution, the region has attained the annual PM_2.5 standards. The area must continue to maintain the standards, keep previous regulatory commitments and continue to demonstrate transportation conformity. PM_2.5 refers to a complex mixture of fine particulates, primarily from fossil fuel combustion. PM_2.5 is emitted directly and will also form indirectly through reactions with precursor emissions, especially NOX. A primary contributor to transportation-related PM_2.5 is diesel emissions.

Greenhouse Gases
Although not an EPA-regulated pollutant under the CAAA, emissions of greenhouse gases have been linked to global climate change. Utilizing a travel demand model and EPA’s latest emission model, OKI forecasts future greenhouse gases, ozone and PM_2.5 emissions from transportation sources through 2050. These forecasts were made in spring 2020 and reported in the environmental impacts section of this plan.

In 2017, FHWA designated alternative fuel corridors in the OKI region for electric vehicles (EV), liquefied natural gas (LNG) and compressed natural gas (CNG). (Insert Table) I-275, I-71, and I-75 received EV signage ready designations; I-71 and I-75 received CNG signage ready designations; and, I-75 received the LNG signage ready designation. With the designation of alternative fuel corridors, FHWA is establishing a national network of alternative fueling and charging infrastructure along national highway system corridors. FHWA based corridor designation selection on criteria that promotes the “build out” of a national network.

FHWA intends to support the expansion of this national network through a process that develops national signage and branding to help catalyze applicant and public interest; encourages multi-State and regional cooperation and collaboration; and, brings together a consortium of stakeholders including state agencies, utilities, alternative fuel providers, and car manufacturers to promote and advance alternative fuel corridor designations in conjunction with the Department of Energy. OKI will continue to facilitate these collaborations and strive to advance alternative fuel infrastructure, as appropriate.

FHWA Designated Alternative Fuels Corridors (Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana)

EV Ready1

• I-275: Entire length
• I-71: From Mason, OH to the I-71/I-75 split near Walton, KY
• I-75: West Chester Township, OH to the I-71/I-75 split near Walton, KY

CNG Ready2

• I-71: From I-71/I-75 split near Walton, KY to Cleveland, OH
• I-75: From I-71/I-75 split near Walton, KY to Piqua, OH

LNG Ready3

• I-75: From I-71/I-75 split near Walton, KY to Vandalia, OH

Source: FHWA

In 2012, Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) built upon earlier programs and policies, promoting accelerating project delivery through the increased use of innovative approaches and the Planning and Environmental Linkages (PEL) process. In 2015, with the passage of the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation (FAST) Act, MPOs continue to be encouraged to consult with officials responsible for other types of planning activities. It adds to the list of such activities as tourism and the reduction of risk of natural disasters.

The FAST Act expands the focus on the resiliency of the transportation system as well as activities to reduce stormwater runoff from transportation infrastructure. In addition, it newly requires strategies to reduce the vulnerability of existing transportation infrastructure to natural disasters.

Extreme weather events, such as, prolonged heat waves, major rain and snow episodes and flooding have impacts on both maintaining and planning transportation infrastructure. While opinions vary on climate change and its causes, historical data indicate an increasing need to plan for transportation resiliency from weather impacts. For that reason, in 2016 the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) contracted with the Resource Systems Group to prepare the Ohio DOT Infrastructure Resiliency Plan, a study of climate change and extreme weather effects in Ohio to enable planning for transportation system resiliency on a state scale.

Rising temperatures can affect transportation infrastructure in a variety of ways, including: freeze-thaw cycling that can compromise pavement integrity; thermal expansion in bridge joints; reduced soil permeability, increasing surface run-off; and lengthening the construction season. Increasing heavy precipitation events can affect transportation infrastructure by flooding roads and bridges; causing soil erosion and slumping; increasing soil moisture build-up behind retaining walls and abutments; creating scour action at bridge piers and abutments; and compromising pavement integrity.

In the ODOT report, several data sources were examined, including the 2013 National Climate Assessment. This data indicated that Midwest temperatures increased by about 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit since 1895, with more than 80 percent of the change occurring since 1980, and that the warmest 13 years since the 1860s have occurred since 1990. All seasons in the Midwest are experiencing temperature increases with the most rapid rises in spring and winter. There have been 45 new daytime highs recorded since 2000, many of which are in mid-March to mid-April.

Additionally, five of the twelve warmest summers since 1895 have occurred since 2000. Since 1900 average annual rainfall in Ohio has increased from 37 inches to 40 inches, an 8 percent rise, with a significant portion of the precipitation increase occurring in extreme events such as 100-year storms.

The Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC) Transportation System report Vulnerability and Resilience to Extreme Weather Events and Other Natural Hazards — Final Results of Vulnerability Assessment of National Highway System for All KYTC Districts addresses issues relating to climate change. The Midwest Regional Climate Center, using historical climate data at the county level, found geographical patterns of extreme precipitation and extreme heat across the state. National Climate Development and Advisory Committee climate protection scenarios project an increase across the state in the annual number of days with a maximum temperature above 95 degrees, and an increase across the state in the annual number of days with extreme precipitation.

The KYTC report also addresses climate inter-annual variability in weather going forward. Furthermore, the KYTC report also addresses risks due to seismic activity and landslides. The risk of earthquakes is lower than the rest of the state, and would not be expected to negatively affect assets but could contribute to landslides in the area. Kentucky Geological Survey (KGS) documented landslides are abundant in Northern Kentucky, particularly Campbell and Kenton Counties.

Purdue University recently published Maintaining Indiana’s Urban Green Spaces: A Report from the Indiana Climate Change Impacts Assessment, which projects that Indiana will become wetter and warmer, and continue to intensify each through the end of this century. Increased green infrastructure is recommended to provide shade, evaporative cooling and windbreaks thus saving residential electrical and heating costs, and they help to avoid carbon dioxide emissions annually.

Green infrastructure plays an essential role in urban air quality, too. It was estimated that Indiana’s urban trees removed 8,400 tons of air pollution in 2010, at a value of $63 million. Urban trees and other vegetation increase the amount of porous ground that can take up rain and melting snow and keep water from overburdening storm sewers. It is estimated that urban trees provide about $24 million in stormwater management benefits to the state annually. Riparian buffers, bioswales, rain gardens and other green drainage infrastructure can also retain or redirect precipitation that would otherwise travel over impervious surfaces to storm drains.

The Ohio River Basin Climate Change Project provides the OKI region with additional information on climate projections. In 2015, James Noel of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service, delivered a presentation to the OKI Groundwater Committee. This project was undertaken as a joint effort among several national and regional organizations, including the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. EPA, the Battelle Institute, Marshall University and the University of Cincinnati. The USACE Institute of Water Resources evaluated more than 75 climate model forecasts for future temperatures and rainfall, and used forecast periods of 2011 to 2040; 2041 to 2070; and 2071 to 2099.

Nine climate forecast scenarios were used that best represented the 75-plus climate forecasts, and the climate models were run from 1952 to 2099. Retrospective runs of the 1952 to 2001 climate and river model made it possible to compare the model results with actual data from the same period, and the correlation between the retrospective model runs and actual data was within two percent on an annual basis; a good correlation for future predictions. Over the course of the multi-year forecast periods, all the scenarios indicate a general increase in temperature, with a range of 10 to 35 percent for the increase, and all the scenarios indicate a general increase in precipitation, increasing from the average of 40 inches annually received now.

When the climate is warming, there is more variability in the system, and the results for autumn show the greatest variability. Modeling results indicate mean, minimum and maximum stream flows within the historical range through 2040, except during autumn. Beyond 2040, mean and maximum stream flows are projected to increase by a range of 10 to 40 percent, which means that until 2040, flood volumes are expected to follow past patterns while larger floods are predicted after 2040.

In terms of temperature trends, the modeling indicates that the Ohio River Valley will gain about 0.5 degrees Fahrenheit per decade and then about one degree per decade from 2050 to 2099. More rapidly increasing temperatures would likely lead to increasing evapotranspiration, which would further increase climate uncertainty. In general, the modeling indicates that by the end of the 21st century, average temperatures now experienced in areas along Interstate 64 south of the Ohio River Basin will shift to being experienced along Interstate 70 north of the Ohio River Basin.

A review of temperature and precipitation trends since 1976 indicates that most observed warming has been in winter in the Ohio Valley and that most observed increases in precipitation in the Ohio Valley have been occurring from late summer into autumn and early winter. Overall, the climate models used in the Ohio Valley project also suggest that beyond 2040, minimum stream flows would decrease in autumn and beyond 2070 they would decrease annually as well.

Section 502 of the Clean Water Act defines green infrastructure as “… the range of measures that use plant or soil systems, permeable pavement or other permeable surfaces or substrates, stormwater harvest and reuse, or landscaping to store, infiltrate, or evapotranspirate stormwater and reduce flows to sewer systems or to surface waters.”

The US EPA describes green infrastructure as a cost-effective, resilient approach to managing wet weather impacts that provides many community benefits. While single-purpose gray stormwater infrastructure—conventional piped drainage and water treatment systems—is designed to move urban stormwater away from the built environment, green infrastructure reduces and treats stormwater at its source while delivering environmental, social, and economic benefits.

Stormwater runoff is a major cause of water pollution in urban areas. When rain falls on our roofs, streets, and parking lots, the water cannot soak into the ground as it would naturally. Stormwater drains through gutters, storm sewers, and other engineered collection systems and is discharged into nearby water bodies. The stormwater runoff often carries trash, bacteria, heavy metals, and other pollutants from the urban landscape. Higher flows resulting from heavy rains also can cause erosion and flooding in urban streams, damaging habitat, property, and infrastructure.

When rain falls in natural, undeveloped areas, the water is absorbed and filtered by soil and plants. Stormwater runoff is cleaner and less of a problem. Green infrastructure uses vegetation, soils, and other elements and practices to restore some of the natural processes required to manage water and create healthier urban environments. At the city or county scale, green infrastructure is a patchwork of natural areas that provides habitat, flood protection, cleaner air, and cleaner water. At the neighborhood or site scale, stormwater management systems that mimic nature soak up and store water. (Source: The US EPA)

OKI considers many environmental aspects as transportation improvements are considered for inclusion in this plan and when these projects are prioritized for funding awards. Projects that demonstrate efforts to avoid, minimize or offset/compensate for environmental impacts to resources such as wetlands, forests and streams have been planned as part of the project receive a higher priority than those not having these considerations. Green infrastructure strategies exceeding minimum state compliance that are integrated into a project design also receive higher priority.

In 2017, OKI and its team of national partners launched an integrated tool and resource kit titled “Integrating Trees into Stormwater Management Design and Policy – A Guide for Local Decision Makers,” which is housed at treesandstormwater.org. The guide is organized to inform two distinct environmental types: developed and undeveloped environments. This structure enables the guide to be of practical use for every community in the OKI region, whether located in urban, suburban, or rural areas.

The guide includes a resource library with design templates for a wide variety of proven stormwater practices, based on an extensive literature review and stormwater engineer engagement during the guide development process. The guide will also provide practical information regarding long term maintenance of these green infrastructure solutions, and also on ordinances, policies, and ecosystem benefit analysis for local governments’ consideration.

In the OKI region and across the nation, the use of trees for managing stormwater has a long way to go to reach full potential. Research over the last decade has provided science and documented the value of trees as a viable stormwater management strategy. Trees and green cover have the ability to reduce the peak flow of stormwater runoff from urbanized areas and filter out pollutants and sediment before the runoff enters streams. While much work has been done to better understand the value of trees in stormwater management, few communities have embraced trees as a component of stormwater facility design and policy.

The impacts of flooding on all flood prone communities have the potential for being reduced when communities incorporate the practices recommended by the treesandstormwater.org guide. The incorporation of tree canopy, particularly in urban, deforested areas, provides many benefits to community residents. In addition to stormwater mitigation, these areas and the underserved residents will benefit from the economic, environmental, and human health benefits trees have proven to provide.